Russia had declared war on Turkey on 24 April 1877. It was ended on l 3 March 1878 with the signing of the Treaty of San Stefano. Russian victories during the war represented a major shift in the balance of power in southeastern Europe. However, Russian casualties exceeded 100,000 men, while the treasury had been depleted by heavy expenditures. The conflict revealed a number of key flaws within Russia's military organization, faulty tactical and strategic concepts, and a tragic failure to recognize and adapt to newly emerging technologies.

In March 1881, Tsar Alexander II was blown up by an assassin's bomb in St. Petersburg. He was succeeded by Tsar Alexander III, the father of Nicholas II. During 1881, Tsar Alexander III appointed P.S. Vannovskiy as War Minister. At Vannovskiy's request the Tsar appointed General N.N. Obruchev as Chief of the Main Staff. Then in December 1898, General A.N. Kuropatkin replaced Vannovskiy as War Minister.

The Franco-Russian Alliance was signed during January 1894. It committed Russia to militarily aid the French if she was attacked by either Germany or Italy, while France was committed to aid Russia if she was attacked by either Germany or Austria-Hungary. At that time Italy was in alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary.

During February 1904, Tsar Nicholas II appointed General V.V. Sakharov as War Minister, replacing Kuropatkin. Sakharov served until July 1905, when he was in turn replaced by General A.F. Rediger. Admiral F.K. Avellan was replaced by Admiral A.A. Birilev as the Minister of Marine. It should be remembered that Nicholas II lacked the ability to make informed decisions as to the qualifications of such men.

The Year 1905

Returning to the chronology, during July, the German Kaiser Wilhelm II visited the Tsar in a rendezvous at sea off the Finnish coast in an attempt to break Russia's alliance with France. Nicholas foolishly signed Wilhelm's draft treaty without his ministers' knowledge and only in September made its existence known. The Russian Foreign Minister made it clear to the Tsar that Russia could not join an alliance with Germany without first consulting with France. The Russian government then informed the German Kaiser that the treaty could not be honored.

On 19 August, the Tsar passed a law establishing a consultative assembly, a Duma, which was to be elected by the people and empowered to debate projected legislation and official reports, with the existing State Council to be retained alongside the Duma. Another law of 9 September granted autonomy to the universities and transferred internal matters to boards of professors.

The Year 1905

During August, an All-Russian Moslem League was established at Nizhniy Novgorod.

On 25 October, a general strike paralyzed Russia. On the 27th, the St. Petersburg Soviet of Workers' Deputies was formed. In early December, the Moscow Soviet came into being.

On 28 October, the Constitutional Democratic Party (Kadets) was formed. On the 29th, Count Vitte accepted the Presidency of the Council of Ministers on the condition that the Tsar would agree to his program of reform to end civil turmoil. The Council had been formed in 1865, but had not been summoned since 1882.

On 30 October, the Tsar issued the October Manifesto, which was supposed to guarantee civil liberties. He announced that a Duma would be elected, with the function to pass or reject all proposed legislation, in effect creating a semi-constitutional monarchy. The Tsar retained his prerogative over defense and foreign affairs, with the sole power to appoint and dismiss ministers. The Empress violently opposed the October Manifesto, seeing it as a major threat to autocratic rule.

There was continuing violence from those on the right and the left during November and December. Mass demonstrations and mutinies became commonplace throughout the Empire. Police ranks swelled due to revolutionary threats. Prisons and penal settlements overflowed. There was widespread persecution of Jews and religious sects in Russia.

The Okhrana (protective section), was nominally established to protect the lives of the Royal Family and high officers of state. In reality the Okhrana directed its energies against everything that was enlightening and progressive. The Okhrana created a system of internal espionage which permeated every level of society. Its secret agents infiltrated government offices, ministries, churches, the military, universities and revolutionary organizations.

The Ministry of the Interior, with jurisdiction over all police activities, had a special staff operating out of Post Offices in every major city, responsible for the opening and reading all mail of persons who had been placed on police watch lists.

In St. Petersburg there were numerous salons, social circles formed by wealthy and well connected patrons. Some delved in mysticism and occultism, while others were political or ultra-conservative in nature, where fortune hunters, schemers and intriguers gathered. Agents of foreign powers often had access to these circles, seeking out privy information on state and military matters. Agents of the Okhrana also attended these circles.

In November, the Russian government abolished censorship. For the first time Russians had the right to publish freely.